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6 simple ways to save energy at home Share this on: Facebook Twitter Digg delicious reddit MySpace StumbleUpon LinkedIn October 20, 2009|By Liz Welch * To save money and energy, seal electrical outlets along the exterior walls of your home. Make a few easy changes around the house for substantial savings. Seal sneaky leaks Seal electrical outlets in the exterior walls of your house. Foam insulating gaskets (less than $1 each) "act as a barrier so conditioned air stays in, rather than leaking out," says Jonathan Passe of the Environmental Protection Agency. Just unscrew the outlet cover, install the gasket, and replace the cover. RealSimple.com: 8 legitimate Earth-friendly seals Go with the flow Install a high-performance showerhead. This uses 1½ gallons of water per minute (gpm) rather than 2½ gallons, the federal upper limit for new showerheads. Advertisement Ads by Google * Cari hotel di Singapura?Penawaran baru hotel Singapura. Pesanlah sekarang! agoda.web.id/Singapore_Hotels * LED Lighting SolutionsCreating a new generation of LED- based lighting products www.rambus.com/lighting By switching from a 2½-gpm to a 1½-gpm model ($20 and up), a family of four (each person taking daily 10-minute showers) could save about $88 a year on water and energy costs with gas water heating and $135 a year with electric, according to figures from the Department of Energy Federal Energy Management Program. RealSimple.com: 50 all-time favorite new uses for old things Swap out bulbs Replace incandescent bulbs with CFLs (compact fluorescent lightbulbs). A $10 CFL uses about a quarter of the wattage of an incandescent bulb, which amounts to more than $30 in savings per replaced bulb over the lifetime of the CFL (which averages 10,000 hours or 416 days). "If every household in the United States replaced one incandescent bulb with a CFL," says Pablo Päster, a sustainability engineer based in San Francisco, California, "the energy savings would be the equivalent of shutting down one coal-fired power plant." Be cool Wash clothes in cold water. You may already know that this saves energy, but do you know how much? "Up to 90 percent of the cost of washing clothes comes from heating the water, so use hot water only for very dirty clothes," says Adam Gottlieb of the California Energy Commission. Another tip: "Match the water level to the amount of clothes, or wait to wash full loads," suggests Clement. "The water savings can be enormous." RealSimple.com: How to save on green goods Close (or open) your blinds Leave blinds down on south-and west-facing windows on hot summer days to keep your space cool. "This prevents the sun from warming your home and making your cooling system work harder," says Clement. "In winter, leave blinds up to allow the sun to help heat your home." Upgrade your heating (and cooling) system Install (and properly program) a programmable thermostat. The average household spends $2,200 annually on energy bills, and about half of that is for heating and cooling, says Vargas. A programmable thermostat costs $50 to $80, is easy to install, and can save about $180 a year. You can shave 2 percent off your heating (or cooling) bill for each degree you lower (or raise) the thermostat for at least eight hours a day while you're away from home or asleep, says Amanda Korane of the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. Souerce : CNN Articles © 2011 Cable News Network. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. All Rights Reserved Privacy Guidelines

Indonesia’s Coal Sector Eyes 2012 Boom

Coal production is set to surge next year as coal miners bolster their businesses and several new mines commence production, the nation’s miners say. Indonesia’s production of thermal and coking coal is forecast to hit 380 million tons in 2012, up 5.5 percent on this year’s estimate, Supriatna Suhala, the executive director of the Indonesian Coal Mining Association (APBI), said on Monday. The Energy Ministry’s forecast for coal production next year is 332 million tons, but that estimate does not include the output of smaller mining companies. China’s demand for coal is expected to double in the next five years to 6 billion tons, according to the APBI. Meanwhile, coal is used in Indonesia’s power plants to make up for insufficient supplies of natural gas, which is locally produced in large amounts but most of which is exported. Indonesia exports the majority of its coal to China, India and Japan. Meanwhile, domestic consumption is regulated under domestic market obligations. The Energy Ministry said that next year 63 coal producers were obliged to supply as much as 82 million tons for domestic consumption, a 4 percent increase from this year’s requirement. The coal is allocated to state-owned electricity company Perusahaan Listrik Negara, which uses as much as 57 million tons — 70 percent of the total demand. The remaining coal will be allocated to cement factories, gold and copper producers Newmont Nusa Tenggara, Freeport Indonesia and Antam and nickel producer Inco. Supriatna said global energy demand was prompting many coal miners to ramp up production and pushing non-energy companies to expand into coal mining. He said more countries, such as Kenya, Bangladesh and Pakistan, were seeking to import coal from Indonesia. “Industries see it as an interesting time to invest in the coal mining sector,” Supriatna said. The APBI forecast that coal prices would be steady next year. The Energy Ministry said that as of August, Indonesia’s coal reference price was $117 per ton, up 4.5 percent from January. About 62 percent of Indonesia’s coal production is categorized as middle-calorie, which is used to fuel power plants at home and abroad. More than 13 percent is high-calorie coal, almost all of which is exported to Japan because of its stringent requirements for carbon emissions. It is used there for power generation and steelmaking. In 2010, Indonesian production declined because of wetter-than-normal conditions. The government plans to ban shipments of raw coal material by 2014, instead requiring the sector to add value to the product before it can be exported. The largest player in the Indonesian coal industry is industrial giant Bumi Resources, followed by Adaro and Kideco Jaya Agung, a unit of Indika. The sector’s activities are focused on the resource-rich island of Kalimantan. * THE JAKARTA GLOBE * GLOBE ASIA * THE PEAK Welcome Guest | Login | Signup Newspaper Subscription JG Logo Thu, October 27, 2011 Archive Search * HOME * NEWS * BUSINESS * INTERNATIONAL * TECH * SPORTS * LIFE & TIMES * OPINION * MY JAKARTA * BLOGS Indonesia’s Coal Sector Eyes 2012 Boom Ririn Radiawati Kusuma | September 12, 2011 Like the activity at this coal mine in Berau, East Kalimantan, the coal mining sector is set to explode in 2012, the industry forecasts. (Reuters Photo/Yusuf Ahmad) Like the activity at this coal mine in Berau, East Kalimantan, the coal mining sector is set to explode in 2012, the industry forecasts. (Reuters Photo/Yusuf Ahmad) Related articles Moody’s Sees More Growth For Indonesian Coal Miners 9:51pm Oct 25, 2011 Bumi’s Coal Output Soars on Rising Demand 10:05pm Oct 21, 2011 Coal Price May Fall as China Buys Less 10:15pm Oct 14, 2011 Adaro Buys Logistics Company for Rp 200b 8:23pm Oct 13, 2011 Indonesia Considers Coal Export Tax: Industry Groups 1:56pm Oct 13, 2011 Share This Page 7 14 0 0 Share with google+ : Post a comment Please login to post comment Comments Be the first to write your opinion! Coal production is set to surge next year as coal miners bolster their businesses and several new mines commence production, the nation’s miners say. Indonesia’s production of thermal and coking coal is forecast to hit 380 million tons in 2012, up 5.5 percent on this year’s estimate, Supriatna Suhala, the executive director of the Indonesian Coal Mining Association (APBI), said on Monday. The Energy Ministry’s forecast for coal production next year is 332 million tons, but that estimate does not include the output of smaller mining companies. China’s demand for coal is expected to double in the next five years to 6 billion tons, according to the APBI. Meanwhile, coal is used in Indonesia’s power plants to make up for insufficient supplies of natural gas, which is locally produced in large amounts but most of which is exported. Indonesia exports the majority of its coal to China, India and Japan. Meanwhile, domestic consumption is regulated under domestic market obligations. The Energy Ministry said that next year 63 coal producers were obliged to supply as much as 82 million tons for domestic consumption, a 4 percent increase from this year’s requirement. The coal is allocated to state-owned electricity company Perusahaan Listrik Negara, which uses as much as 57 million tons — 70 percent of the total demand. The remaining coal will be allocated to cement factories, gold and copper producers Newmont Nusa Tenggara, Freeport Indonesia and Antam and nickel producer Inco. Supriatna said global energy demand was prompting many coal miners to ramp up production and pushing non-energy companies to expand into coal mining. He said more countries, such as Kenya, Bangladesh and Pakistan, were seeking to import coal from Indonesia. “Industries see it as an interesting time to invest in the coal mining sector,” Supriatna said. The APBI forecast that coal prices would be steady next year. The Energy Ministry said that as of August, Indonesia’s coal reference price was $117 per ton, up 4.5 percent from January. About 62 percent of Indonesia’s coal production is categorized as middle-calorie, which is used to fuel power plants at home and abroad. More than 13 percent is high-calorie coal, almost all of which is exported to Japan because of its stringent requirements for carbon emissions. It is used there for power generation and steelmaking. In 2010, Indonesian production declined because of wetter-than-normal conditions. The government plans to ban shipments of raw coal material by 2014, instead requiring the sector to add value to the product before it can be exported. The largest player in the Indonesian coal industry is industrial giant Bumi Resources, followed by Adaro and Kideco Jaya Agung, a unit of Indika. The sector’s activities are focused on the resource-rich island of Kalimantan. Source : Copyright ©2011 Jakarta Globe, All Rights Reserved

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Diamond Mining in Indonesia BMDiamondcorp (previously Battlefield Minerals Corp) has acquired Ashton's 80% interest in a diamond dredging operation in the Cempaka area in Kalimantan and has raised 1.75 million pounds to commence exploration. The joint venture is also investigating alluvial diamond despots in Martapura and Danau Seran in South Kalimantan. The recently completed Cempaka feasibility study estimate an average annual production of 41 000ct over a 18 year life of mine. Gold and other heavy minerals could be recovered as a by product of this process, using a bucket line dredge, similar to those used in tin dredging operations. Users of the MBendi website are assumed to have read and agreed to our terms and conditions © 1995-2011, MBendi and its associated information providers

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Relief Muka Bumi & Vulkanisme  eSeMAN1s You have come to this page to find information on Relief Muka Bumi & Vulkanisme  eSeMAN1s. However, we currently do not have data about the Relief Muka Bumi & Vulkanisme  eSeMAN1s. You can find more information by using other keywords that may be similar to Relief Muka Bumi & Vulkanisme  eSeMAN1s and use the search box below. Thank you for using the service eLowonganPekerjaan.Com as a job seeker site number one in Indonesia. Relief Muka Bumi & Vulkanisme  eSeMAN1s Suggestions: Or use other keyword than Relief Muka Bumi & Vulkanisme  eSeMAN1s with search box below. Copyright © 2009 - eLowonganPekerjaan.com - have come with Awesome WordPress Fully Support : Naru Bursa eLowonganPekerjaan.com Terbaru Job Vacancies Job Search is Maintain by: Lowongan Kerja Terbaru 2010 About, Privacy Policy, Sitemaps, Top 100 Job Search

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Uses of Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels is the name given to a group of substances believed to have been formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter under intense pressure and heat over hundreds of millions of years. The major forms of fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas. According the Department of Energy, fossil fuels are used for more than 85 percent of all energy consumption in the U.S. 1. Electricity * Fossil fuels, particularly coal, are used in power plants for electricity production. Transportation * While there has been some transition toward hybrid and electric vehicles, the vast majority of vehicles require fossil fuels to operate. Heating * Most heating is provided through fossil fuel-based heating oils and natural gas, or indirectly through fossil fuel-generated electricity. Cooling * Like heating, most cooling systems rely directly or indirectly on fossil fuel-provided energy. Considerations * While fossil fuels are the core source of current energy production, they are considered to be a limited, nonrenewable and polluting energy source. These factors will ultimately require the development of large-scale alternatives. * Cari hotel di Singapura?agoda.web.id/Singapore_Hotels Penawaran baru hotel Singapura. Pesanlah sekarang! * Advanced Wind Bladeswww.vistagy.com Developing Superior Composite Wind Blades. Download Free eBook Now. * Ash Handlingwww.macawber.com Macawber manufactures Ash Handling Systems and the Dome Valve * Biofuels networkingwww.biofuelsinternationalexpo.com Meet with leading international biofuels producers in Asia & Europe Read more: Uses of Fossil Fuels | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/facts_5294988_uses-fossil-fuels.html#ixzz1bfYeZYAR Copyright © 1999-2011 Demand Media, Inc. Use of this web site constitutes acceptance of the eHow Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Ad Choices en-US

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Limestone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Limestone (disambiguation). Limestone Sedimentary Rock Limestone Formation In Waitomo.jpg Limestone in Waitomo District, New Zealand Composition Calcium carbonate: inorganic crystalline calcite and/or organic calcareous material Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Limestone has numerous uses, including as a building material, as aggregate to form the base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints, and as a chemical feedstock. Description Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA La Zaplaz formations in the Piatra Craiului Mountains, Romania. Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Like most other sedimentary rocks, limestone is composed of grains; however, most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind after the organisms die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert (chalcedony, flint, jasper, etc.) or siliceous skeletal fragment (sponge spicules, diatoms, radiolarians), and varying amounts of clay, silt and sand (terrestrial detritus) carried in by rivers. Some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i.e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular (oolite) appearance. The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, building upon past generations. Below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters (see lysocline). Limestones may also form in both lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments.[1][2] Calcite can be either dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces. Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls, and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process (orogeny), limestone recrystallizes into marble. Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group. [edit] Classification Two major classification schemes, the Folk and the Dunham, are used for identifying limestone and carbonate rocks. [edit] Folk classification Main article: Folk classification Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks. Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the grains and the second is the root. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample.[3] [edit] Dunham classification Main article: Dunham classification The Dunham scheme focuses on depositional textures. Each name is based upon the texture of the grains that make up the limestone. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962; it focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles. Dunham names are essentially for rock families. His efforts deal with the question of whether or not the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.[4] [edit] Types There are many types of limestone the most common ones: Chalk, crystalline, fossilferous, oolitic and travertine. For more see link below. Main article: List of types of limestone [edit] Limestone landscape Main article: Karst topography The Cudgel of Hercules, a tall limestone rock (Pieskowa Skała Castle in the background) Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.[5][6] Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. It is therefore usually associated with hills and downland, and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays. Karst topography and caves develop in limestone rocks due to their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes. Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone. While draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in solution. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation. Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil record (see Taylor and Wilson, 2003). Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight,[7] England; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States, Notch Peak in Utah, the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam and the hills around the Lijiang River and Guilin city in China. The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present. Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden. Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden. Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers. The world's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company in Rogers City, Michigan.[8] [edit] Uses Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in Giza, Egypt, are made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Canada were constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.[9] On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was, for a long time, the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy material, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material. The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its outside cover is made entirely from limestone. Courthouse built of limestone in Manhattan, Kansas A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print. Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a source of high quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone. Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England. Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid solutions, making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone. Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain. Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline-based cleaner. Other uses include: * It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), cement and mortar. * Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils. * It is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads. * Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs; * As a reagent in flue gas desulfurization, it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution control. * Glass making, in some circumstances, uses limestone. * It is added to toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler. * It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines. * Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium. * Calcium levels in livestock feed are supplemented with it, such as for poultry (when ground up).[10] * It can be used for remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.[11] * Used in blast furnaces, limestone extracts iron from its ore. * It is often found in medicines and cosmetics. * It is used in sculptures because of its suitability for carving. [edit] Gallery * Limestone cropping out at São Pedro de Moel beach, Marinha Grande, Portugal * A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale. The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction. * Thin-section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah. The round grains are ooids; the largest is 1.2 mm in diameter. This limestone is an oosparite. * Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation near Cincinnati, Ohio [edit] References 1. ^ Trewin, N.H. & Davidson, R.G. 1999. Lake-level changes, sedimentation and faunas in a Middle Devonian basin-margin fish bed, Geological Society, 156, 535-548 2. ^ Oilfield Glossary: Term 'evaporite' 3. ^ Folk RL, (1974) Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Hemphill Publishing, Austin, Texas 4. ^ Dunham, R.J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures, in Ham W.E. (ed.), Classification of carbonate rocks: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1,p. 108-121 5. ^ "Calcite". http://www.mine-engineer.com/mining/mineral/calcite.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-13. 6. ^ "Limestone (mineral)". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257008095152489. Retrieved 2008-02-13. 7. ^ "Isle of Wight, Minerals" (PDF). http://www.iwight.com/council/documents/policies_and_plans/udp/2002_pdfs/minerals.pdf. Retrieved 2006-10-08. 8. ^ Michigan Markers 9. ^ "Welcome to the Limestone City". http://www.citylifeontario.com/kingston/. Retrieved 2008-02-13. 10. ^ "PoultyOne article on Calcium for chickens". http://poultryone.com/articles/calcium.html. 11. ^ "World Health Organization report". http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutconsensus/en/. [edit] Further reading * Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1-103.[1] * Folk RL, (1974) Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Hemphill Publishing, Austin, Texas * Dunham, R.J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures, in Ham W.E. (ed.), Classification of carbonate rocks: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1,p. 108-121 [edit] See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Limestones * Calcium carbonate * Chalk * Coral sand * In Praise of Limestone Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limestone&oldid=456440128" View page ratings Rate this page Rate this page Page ratings What's this? Current average ratings. 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What are the scope in geography after graduation? Answer It! In: Professions [Edit categories] Save or Cancel Leica Microsystems Total Digital Pathology Solutions for Health, Research and Education leica-microsystems.com Ads Relevant answers: * Define geography and the nature and scope of geography? Geography is the study of natural and non-natural distribution of things on earth. Geography comes from the Greek meaning drawing of earth. We map out where natural land/ocean resources occur (i.e.... * What is the aim and scope of commercial geography? Commercial geography has assumed an international importance today. The global market has paved a significant scope for a new subject such as Commercial Geography. The etymology of the term itself... * Nature and scope of urban geography? hina * Meaning and scope of commercial geography? it is the study of the way a man adjust their commercial activities to the physical environment.And it is mainly concerned with the study of physical environment,study of agriculture,study of... * Describe resources of geography and it's scope and nature? describe resources Answers.com > Wiki Answers > Categories > Jobs & Education > Jobs > Professions > What are the scope in geography after graduation? HOPG: monochromator &more STM substrate, HOPG x-ray optics, thin films of HOPG and TPG www.optigraph.eu Saybrook Graduate School Earn your MA or PhD at a distance Humanistic Psychology & Org Systems www.saybrook.edu Harvest West Christian Leadership Training Certificate, Diploma and Degree www.harvestwest.edu.au Ads This page is closed to edits. Unfollow follow [report abuse] Can you answer this question? What are the scope in geography after graduation? Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_scope_in_geography_after_graduation#ixzz1bNUh2lrB Copyright © 2011 Answers Corporation

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Petrographic Microscope Petrographic Microscopes. Com is the best informative site the can provide you with loads of information and anything you want to know about petrographic microscopes and other relevant and significant information. This website is purposely designed and created to offer and present comprehensive collection of articles, news and information on petrographic microscopes. Because online shopping is very popular at present, our site provides vast and complete information about petrographic microscopes and other various types of microscopes at just one click. In this way, you can learn more about petrographic microscopes, its applications, specifications and other services before making a decision to purchase. There are various manufacturers that sell their products online and these selling sites are usually linked to this site. Those online shops that deal with selling various kinds of petrographic microscopes are ready to serve you at the best way they can. You can order and purchase petrographic microscopes of your choice, they will be the one to provide fast delivery of the product you ordered and you will pay through pay pal systems that are indicated on the site. However, if you are looking for the right and complete information about petrographic microscopes, you can always log on to our site. The goal of this site is to create outstanding, highly logical and up to date information delivered over the Internet Web. We are committed in providing you with the most interesting articles, news, information and anything you want to know about petrographic microscopes and other relevant information. Our mission is to create comprehensive articles on the Internet. We employ highly qualified article writers and web designers to ensure the excellent presentation of our websites. Review our site and find anything and everything you want to know about petrographic microscopes and other relevant information. We guarantee that our site only provides articles, news and information that are reliable, comprehensive and outstanding. Our site is the best informative site among others. We are looking forward to serve you best and to offer you with the most comprehensive and broad information about petrographic microscopes and other relevant topics. Everything you want to know about the latest news and information on orthopedic tools, you can find it here in our site. I recommend that you review our site to find more and learn more interesting information. Call our Sales Hotline at 1-877-2384-3931 or Email sales@petrographicmicroscope.com 40x 600x Infinity Corrected Polarizing Trinocular Microscope W/ Case + Mineral Slides Set W/ USB Jpg Image Digital Camera W/ Live Motion Video CCD Camera 40X - 600X INFINITY CORRECTED POLARIZING TRINOCULAR MICROSCOPE W/ CASE + MINERAL SLIDES SET W/ USB JPG IMAGE DIGITAL CAMERA W/ LIVE MOTION VIDEO CCD CAMERA Discounted from actual price below. 40x 630x Compound Trinocular Polarizing Geological Microscope W/ Case + Mineral Slides Set USB Jpg Image Digital Camera W/ Live Motion Video CCD Camera 40X - 630X COMPOUND TRINOCULAR POLARIZING GEOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE W/ CASE + MINERAL SLIDES SET USB JPG IMAGE DIGITAL CAMERA W/ LIVE MOTION VIDEO CCD CAMERA Discounted from actual price below. 40x 400x Compound Monocular Polarizing Geological Microscope W/ Bertrand Lens 40X - 400X COMPOUND MONOCULAR POLARIZING GEOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE W/ BERTRAND LENS Discounted from actual price below. Click here to view other Petrographic Microscope Products. Click Here For Online Chat Support Skilled Microscopist Available Now to Chat. Please click here if you don't get through on our phones. * 40X - 600X INFINITY CORRECTED POLARIZING TRINOCULAR MICROSCOPE W/ CASE + MINERAL SLIDES SET W/ USB JPG IMAGE DIGITAL CAMERA W/ LIVE MOTION VIDEO CCD CAMERA * 40X - 630X COMPOUND TRINOCULAR POLARIZING GEOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE W/ CASE + MINERAL SLIDES SET USB JPG IMAGE DIGITAL CAMERA W/ LIVE MOTION VIDEO CCD CAMERA * 40X - 400X COMPOUND MONOCULAR POLARIZING GEOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE W/ BERTRAND LENS * 40X - 400X COMPOUND TRINOCULAR POLARIZING GEOLOGICAL MICROSCOPE W/ BERTRAND LENS * 40X - 400X MONOCULAR ORE ROCK POLARIZING PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE THIN THICK OPAQUE SPECIMEN POLARIZED TRANSMITTED LIGHT POLARIZED INCIDENT LIGHT Petrographic Microscope Contact Details Affiliated Sites: * Metallurgical Microscope * Student Microscope * Fluorescence Microscope * Measuring Microscope * Dissecting Microscope * Cheap Microscope * Field Microscope * Stereo Zoom Microscope * Toy Microscope * Gemological Microscope * USB Microscope * Inspection Microscope * USB Digital Microscope * Medical Microscope * Teaching Microscope * Tissue Culture Microscope * Blood Microscope * Shop Microscope * Optical Microscope * School Microscope * Polarizing Microscope * Comparison Microscope * Phase Contrast Microscope Home | About Us | Products | Resources | Articles | Contact Us Copright 2007 Petrographic Microscope. All Rights Reserved.

http://www.galleries.com/minerals

The Zeolite Group of Minerals The Zeolites are a popular group of minerals for collectors and an important group of minerals for industrial and other purposes. They combine rarity, beauty, complexity and unique crystal habits. Typically forming in the cavities (or vesicles) of volcanic rocks, zeolites are the result of very low grade metamorphism. Some form from just subtle amounts of heat and pressure and can just barely be called metamorphic while others are found in obviously metamorphic regimes. Zeolite crystals have been grown on board the space shuttle and are undergoing extensive research into their formation and unique properties. The zeolites are framework silicates consisting of interlocking tetrahedrons of SiO4 and AlO4. In order to be a zeolite the ratio (Si +Al)/O must equal 1/2. The alumino-silicate structure is negatively charged and attracts the positive cations that reside within. Unlike most other tectosilicates, zeolites have large vacant spaces or cages in their structures that allow space for large cations such as sodium, potassium, barium and calcium and even relatively large molecules and cation groups such as water, ammonia, carbonate ions and nitrate ions. In the more useful zeolites, the spaces are interconnected and form long wide channels of varying sizes depending on the mineral. These channels allow the easy movement of the resident ions and molecules into and out of the structure. Zeolites are characterized by their ability to lose and absorb water without damage to their crystal structures. The large channels explain the consistent low specific gravity of these minerals. Zeolites have many useful purposes. They can perform ion exchange, filtering, odor removal, chemical sieve and gas absorption tasks. The most well known use for zeolites is in water softeners. Calcium in water can cause it to be "hard" and capable of forming scale and other problems. Zeolites charged with the much less damaging sodium ions can allow the hard water to pass through its structure and exchange the calcium for the sodium ions. This process is reversable. In a similar way zeolites can absorb ions and molecules and thus act as a filter for odor control, toxin removal and as a chemical sieve. Zeolites can have the water in their structures driven off by heat with the basic structure left intact. Then other solutions can be pushed through the structure. The zeolites can then act as a delivery system for the new fluid. This process has applications in medicine, livestock feeds and other types of research. Zeolites added to livestock feed have been shown to absorb toxins that are damaging and even fatal to the growth of the animals, while the basic structure of the zeolite is biologically neutral. Aquarium hobbyists are seeing more zeolite products in pet stores as zeolites make excellent removers of ammonia and other toxins. Most municipal water supplies are processed through zeolites before public consumption. These uses of zeolites are extremely important for industry, although synthetic zeolites are now doing the bulk of the work. Zeolites have basically three different structural variations. --> * There are chain-like structures whose minerals form acicular or needle-like prismatic crystals, ie natrolite. * Sheet-like structures where the crystals are flattened platy or tabular with usually good basal cleavages, ie heulandite. * And framework structures where the crystals are more equant in dimensions, ie Chabazite. A zeolite can be thought of in terms of a house, where the structure of the house (the doors, windows, walls and roof) is really the zeolite while the furniture and people are the water, ammonia and other molecules and ions that can pass in and out of the structure. The chain-like structures can be thought of like towers or high wire pylons. The sheet-like structures can be thought of like large office buildings with the sheets analogous to the floors and very few walls between the floors. And the framework structures like houses with equally solid walls and floors. All these structures are still frameworks (like the true tectosilicates that zeolites are). These variations make the zeolite group very diverse, crystal habit-wise. Otherwise zeolites are typically soft to moderately hard, light in density, transparent to translucent and have similar origins. There are about 45 natural minerals that are recognized members of the Zeolite Group. Industrially speaking, the term zeolite includes natural silicate zeolites, synthetic materials and phosphate minerals that have a zeolite like structure. The complexity of this combined group is extensive with over 120 structural variations and more are being discovered or made every year. Collecting zeolites can be very enjoyable and fulfilling. These are the members of the Zeolite Group: * The Analcime Family: o Analcime (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate) o Pollucite (Hydrated Cesium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) o Wairakite (Hydrated Calcium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) * Bellbergite (Hydrated Potassium Barium Strontium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) * Bikitaite (Hydrated Lithium Aluminum Silicate) * Boggsite (Hydrated calcium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) * Brewsterite (Hydrated Strontium Barium Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * The Chabazite Family: o Chabazite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Willhendersonite (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Cowlesite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Dachiardite (Hydrated calcium Sodium Potassium Aluminum Silicate) * Edingtonite (Hydrated Barium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Epistilbite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Erionite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Faujasite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) * Ferrierite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * The Gismondine Family: o Amicite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) o Garronite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Gismondine (Hydrated Barium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Gobbinsite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Gmelinite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Gonnardite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Goosecreekite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * The Harmotome Family: o Harmotome (Hydrated Barium Potassium Aluminum Silicate) o Phillipsite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Wellsite (Hydrated Barium Calcium Potassium Aluminum Silicate) * The Heulandite Family: o Clinoptilolite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Heulandite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Laumontite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Levyne (Hydrated Calcium Sodium Potassium Aluminum Silicate) * Mazzite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Magnesium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Merlinoite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Barium Aluminum Silicate) * Montesommaite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Aluminum Silicate) * Mordenite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * The Natrolite Family: o Mesolite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Natrolite (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate) o Scolecite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Offretite (Hydrated Calcium Potassium Magnesium Aluminum Silicate) * Paranatrolite (Hydrated Sodium Aluminum Silicate) * Paulingite (Hydrated Potassium Calcium Sodium Barium Aluminum Silicate) * Perlialite (Hydrated Potassium Sodium Calcium Strontium Aluminum Silicate) * The Stilbite Family: o Barrerite (Hydrated Sodium Potassium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Stilbite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) o Stellerite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Thomsonite (Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Tschernichite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) * Yugawaralite (Hydrated Calcium Aluminum Silicate) Zeolites have many "cousins" or minerals that have similar cage-like framework structures or have similar properties and/or are associated with zeolites; but are not zeolites, at least as defined mineralogically. These include the phosphates: kehoeite, pahasapaite and tiptopite; and the silicates: hsianghualite, lovdarite, viseite, partheite, prehnite, roggianite, apophyllite, gyrolite, maricopaite, okenite, tacharanite and tobermorite. It is interesting to compare these minerals to the zeolites. Can your phone read QR-Codes? [QR Codes can be read by any iPhone, Droid, Blackberry (v5+), and many others including 90% of phones sold in Japan!] QR-MESSAGES.COM Copyright ©1995-2011 by Amethyst Galleries, Inc. Site design & programming by galleries.com web services

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struktur_kristal

Struktur kristal Dalam mineralogi dan kristalografi, struktur kristal adalah suatu susunan khas atom-atom dalam suatu kristal. Suatu struktur kristal dibangun oleh sel unit, sekumpulan atom yang tersusun secara khusus, yang secara periodik berulang dalam tiga dimensi dalam suatu kisi. Spasi antar sel unit dalam segala arah disebut parameter kisi. Sifat simetri kristalnya terwadahi dalam gugus spasinya. Struktur dan simetri suatu emmainkan peran penting dalam menentukan sifat-sifatnya, seperti sifat pembelahan, struktur pita listrik, dan optiknya. Sel unit Satu sel unit adalah susunan spatial atom-atom yang mengekor secara tiga dimensi untuk menggambarkan kristalnya. Posisi atom dalam sel unit digambarkan sebagai unit asimetri atau basis, sekumpulan posisi atom (xi,yi,zi) yang diukur dari suatu titik kisi. Setiap struktur kristal memiliki sel unit konvensional yang biasanya dipilih agar kisi yang dihasilkan sesimetris mungkin. Meski begitu, sel unit konvensional tidak selalu pilihan terkecil yang mungkin. Suatu sel unit primitif dari suatu struktur kristal merupakan sel unit terkecil yang mungkin yang dapat dibangun, sehingga, ketika disusun, akan mengisi spasi/ruang secara sempurna. Sel Wigner-Seitz adalah suatu sel primitif khas yang memiliki simetri yang sama dengan kisinya. [sunting] Sistem kristal [sunting] Klasifikasi kisi [sunting] Kisi atom raksasa Suatu kisi kristal yang terdiri dari atom yang saling berikatan dengan ikatan kovalen, misalnya, intan. Zat dengan kisi atomik raksasa sangat kuat serta mempunyai titik leleh dan didih yang sangat tinggi. [sunting] Kisi ion raksasa Suatu kisi kristal yang terdiri dari ion yang terikat satu sama lain dengan ikatan ion, misalnya, natrium klorida. Ikatan ion sangat kuat, ini berarti zat akan mempunyai titik leleh dan titik didih yang tinggi. [sunting] Kisi logam raksasa Suatu kisi kristal yang terdiri dari atom logam yang saling berikatan dengan ikatan logam, misalnya, zink. Elektron terdelokalisasi bebas bergerak, menjadikan logam penghantar listrik dan panas yang baik. Lapisan logam dapat saling melipat di atas yang lain, membuat logam dapat ditempa dan dapat ditarik. [sunting] Kisi molekular Suatu kisi kristal yang terdiri dari molekul yang saling berikatan dengan gaya-gaya antarmolekul, misalnya, iodin. Gaya ini lemah, sehingga kristal mempunyai titik leleh dan didih yang rendah bila dibandingkan dengan senyawa ion dan dapat dengan mudah diputuskan. Ikatan kovalen di dalam molekulnya lebih kuat dan tidak terlalu mudah untuk diputuskan.[1] [sunting] Lihat pula * Kristal * Kristalografi * Kerusakan kristalografis * Pertumbuhan kristal * Kristal cair * Pembelahan (kristal) Untuk embaran lebih rinci mengenai penerapan teknologi yang spesifik, lihat rekayasa bahan, ilmu bahan, keramik, metalurgi, atau fisika bahan. [sunting] Referensi 1. ^ Wertheim, Jane; Oxlade, Chris; Stockley, Corinne. Kamus Kimia Bergambar. Diterjemahkan oleh Dra. Agusniar Trisnamiati, M.Si. Jakarta: Erlangga, 2004. ISBN 9796884895 Teks tersedia di bawah Lisensi Atribusi/Berbagi Serupa Creative Commons; ketentuan tambahan mungkin berlaku. Lihat Ketentuan Penggunaan untuk lebih jelasnya.

Penggunaan Briket Batubara sebagai Sumber Energi Alternatif

Penduduk Indonesia yang bergolongan ekonomi menengah ke bawah masih cukup banyak yang menggunakan minyak tanah sebagai bahan bakar untuk menjalankan kehidupan kesehariannya. Padahal, harga minyak bumi yang beberapa tahun terakhir ini sangat bergejolak dan cenderung mengalami trend kenaikan harga membuat harga minyak tanahpun semakin meningkat. Berbagai sumber energi alternatif pengganti BBM tentunya sangat diperlukan dalam rangka menghadapi kondisi ini. Salah satu energi alternatif untuk kebutuhan memasak yang berpotensi bagi penduduk ekonomi menengah ke bawah adalah briket batubara. Walaupun cadangan batubara di Indonesia relatif besar, sebagian besar sumber daya batubatra tersebut merupakan batubara berperingkat rendah yang berkadar air tinggi. Batubara berperingkat rendah akan cocok untuk berbagai kebutuhan rumah tangga dan industri kecil, misalnya memasak. Oleh karena itu, bentuk briket merupakan bentuk paling cocok sebagai sumber energi alternatif memasak di kegiatan rumah tangga. Selanjutnya, perbandingan analisis ekonomi pada investasi dan pengeluaran saat menggunakan minyak tanah, elpiji, dan briket batubara akan diperlihatkan. Berbagai asumsi yang dipakai dalam analisis ekonomi ini adalah sebagai berikut: 1. Investasi awal untuk penggunaan minyak tanah dan briket batubara adalah berupa kompor 2. Investasi awal untuk penggunaan elpiji adalah berupa kompor gas, regulator, dan tabung elpiji 3 kg. 3. Harga dari minyak tanah dan elpiji adalah harga yang ditetapkan oleh PT Pertamina sebagai bahan bakar bersubsidi 4. Harga briket batubara merupakan harga nyata di daerah Bandung, Jawa Barat (di tingkat pengecer) 5. Lama penggunaan bahan bakar : 2 jam/hari Setelah sekitar 6 bulan pemakaian briket batubara, pengguna briket diprediksi sudah mampu menekan pengeluaran total dibandingkan jika menggunakan bahan bakar minyak tanah atau elpiji. Penggunaan bahan bakar elpiji relatif mahal di awal karena investasi peralatannya relatif lebih mahal dibandingkan yang lain. Penggunaan elpiji baru akan ekonomis saat bahan bakar ini digunakan dalam jangka waktu yang panjang. Dalam jangka waktu 1 tahun, diperlihatkan bahwa baik elpiji maupun briket batubara sudah mampu memberikan penghematan jika dibandingkan dengan penggunaan minyak tanah yang masih banyak digunakan sekarang untuk memasak. Analisis ekonomi dengan berbagai asumsi kasar di atas ini menunjukkan adanya potensi keekonomisan penggunaan bahan bakar alternatif briket batubara dalam menggantikan minyak tanah saat ini. CARA MEMBUAT BRIKET DARI LIMBAH PERTANIAN : Limbah pertanian seperti kulit kacang, bonggol jagung, dan tempurung kelapa bisa diolah menjadi briket. Di tengah rencana pemerintah menaikkan harga elpiji, briket bisa menjadi bahan bakar alternatif. Setiap 1 kilogram briket bisa menghasilkan panas hingga 1,5 jam. Dengan harga Rp 2.500 per kg, biaya lebih hemat dibandingkan dengan elpiji. ”Menggunakan elpiji, panas 1,5 jam butuh biaya Rp 7.000,” kata Edi Gunarto, perajin briket di Dusun Plebengan, Sidomulyo, Bambanglipuro, Bantul, Selasa (30/11). Dalam sehari, ia memproduksi 100 kg briket. Untuk briket sebanyak itu, dia butuh bahan baku kulit kacang tanah dan bonggol jagung 200 kg. Produksi briketnya selalu habis diserap pasar, terutama industri rumah tangga. Di kalangan industri rumah tangga, briket menjadi bahan bakar alternatif murah dibandingkan dengan elpiji atau batubara. ”Mayoritas pelanggan kami usaha katering, batik, dan industri makanan dan minuman yang butuh pembakaran,” ujarnya. Briket belum banyak diminati konsumen rumah tangga. Kebiasaan siap pakai dan kepraktisan membuat warga memilih elpiji. ”Briket harus digunakan sampai nyala apinya habis, sementara di rumah tangga pemakaiannya tak menentu. Kami sedang mendesain kompor tungku yang bisa digunakan praktis,” katanya. Pembuatan briket diawali pembakaran bahan baku di drum selama dua jam. Setelah dingin, bahan itu lalu dihancurkan hingga menjadi serbuk dan dicampur tepung kanji dengan perbandingan 10:1. Proses terakhir adalah cetak briket dengan mesin. Novi Setiawan, perajin briket di Jurug, Bangunharjo, Sewon, mengatakan, tempurung kelapa juga bisa jadi briket. Harga jualnya jauh lebih tinggi, yakni Rp 7.350 per buah. Briket lainnya Rp 2.000-Rp 2.500 per buah. Daya tahan panas yang lebih lama menjadi alasan utama. Briket lebih banyak diekspor. Namun, fluktuatif. ”Kami mulai melirik lokal, terutama industri rumah tangga,” ujarnya. KESIMPULANYA Berbagai sumber energi alternatif pengganti BBM tentunya sangat diperlukan dalam rangka menghadapi kondisi ini. Salah satu energi alternatif untuk kebutuhan memasak yang berpotensi bagi penduduk ekonomi menengah ke bawah adalah briket batubara. Dan analisis ekonomi dengan berbagai asumsi kasar di atas ini menunjukkan adanya potensi keekonomisan penggunaan bahan bakar alternatif briket batubara dalam menggantikan minyak tanah saat ini. KOMPAS.com © 2008 – 2011

http://www.geologynet.com

Magazine Corner Earth Science and Related Magazines and Journals Links to General Interest Earth Science and Related Magazines Click on the Magazine Title for More Information Dedicated Earth Science Magazines and Journals General Science Magazines and Journals Other Sites Earth Science Journals - List of Online Journals Mining Journals and Publications - Goldsheet Web Site Dedicated Earth Science Magazines and Journals Computers and Geosciences See Online MagazineDescription Computers and Geosciences is a journal devoted to all aspects of computing in the geosciences. It brings to its readers information about databases, data structures, computer graphics, numerical methods, simulation models, statistical and expert system methods, image analysis, spatial analysis and other topics of interest to geoscientists working with computers. The term `geoscience' is used in its broadest sense. Online. See all Elsevier Science Journals European Journal of Mineralogy See Online Magazine Description The European Journal of Mineralogy (EJM) was founded in 1988 to reach a large audience on an international scale and also for achieving closer cooperation of European countries in the publication of scientific papers. EJM publishes original papers, review articles and short notes dealing with all mineralogical sciences, which include primarily mineralogy, petrology, geochemistry, crystallography and ore geology, as well as applied and technical mineralogy or any related field. Online Abstracts. Earth and Planetary Science Letters See Online Magazine Description Earth and Planetary Science Letters and thus EPSL Online covers research into all aspects of plate tectonics, ocean-floor spreading and continental drift, as well as basic studies of the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the earth's crust and mantle, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The journal also covers planetary and cosmic studies. Online. See all Elsevier Science Journals Geological Magazine Magazine Description Geological Magazine established in 1864, is one of the oldest and best-known periodicals in earth sciences. It publishes original scientific papers covering the complete spectrum of geological topics, with high quality illustrations. Its attractive layout, Rapid Communications section and extensive Book Review section keep the journal at the forefront of important publications in the field. In 1997, there was a special issue on the Trans-European Suture Zone Geology Today See Online Magazine Description Geology Today provides an entertaining and instructive read for all Earth Scientists - amateur and professional. Articles and Features review topics of current interest in the Earth Sciences - written for the non-specialist by experts in the field. News and Briefing columns report on news from the geological community, recent research that has appeared in the specialist journals, geological happenings and discoveries and geological conferences. Fossils Explained and Minerals Explained are two regular series looking at the origins, classification and identification of fossils and minerals. A lively Correspondence section allows readers to air and share their views and to respond to items appearing in the journal. This melting pot of news, views and opinion makes fascinating reading. See all Blackwell Science Journals Geoscience World See Online Magazine Description GeoScienceWorld (GSW) is a nonprofit corporation formed by a group of leading geoscientific organizations for the purpose of making geoscience research and related information easily and economically available via the Internet. GSW is an unprecedented collaboration of six leading earth science societies and one institute. The Founding Organizations: * American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), * American Geological Institute (AGI), * Geological Society of America (GSA), * The Geological Society of London (GSL), * Mineralogical Society of America (MSA), * Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM), and * Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) These Founders have worked together with other geoscience societies and university presses to develop an electronic research resource that is unprecedented in our field of science. Initially, GeoScienceWorld (GSW) will deliver online the aggregated journal content of the Founding Organizations and of other not-for-profit and independent geoscience publishers. With time, other material such as maps, books, and geoscience digital data will be included or inter-linked. When technically practical, GSW will include non-English publications. geotimes.gif (28374 bytes) Geotimes See Online Magazine Description A Publication of the American Geological Institute. Covers news, politics, people and places in geosciences mainly related to American Geological Institute Members. Online notes. GSA Today See Online Magazine Description Welcome to GSA Today, the monthly newsmagazine of the Geological Society of America. This publication is provided in print to all members of GSA as part of their dues, and is available to others on an annual subscription basis (E-mail pubs@geosociety.org for information and rates). Full Articles Online. Mineralogical Record See Online Magazine Description The principal product of the Mineralogical Record Inc. is the Mineralogical Record magazine, issued six times a year. This is the most authoritative and widely respected collector's journal in the world; no serious advanced mineral collector would be without it, and over the years many beginners to the field have learned from it the critical and extensive information they need to go from novice to expert to connoisseur. Copies of the magazine are never discarded like old newspapers, but are carefully saved and collected as reference works of permanent value. Table of Contents covering all assues online. Petroleum Data Manager See Online Magazine Description The Data Room was founded in 1995 with the objective of providing consultancy, training and services in the field of E&P data management. Neil McNaughton, president of The Data Room is an explorationist with over 20 years experience of managing and exploiting E&P data and is a member of the following societies:- SEG, EAGE, AFTP, ARMA, AAPG and SPE. Most recently, The Data Room's reputation for lucid and penetrating analysis of high tech subjects has led to its being selected by an international organisation for a major study of the evolution of international telecommunications markets. 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Minerals and Their Uses

Every segment of society uses minerals and mineral resources everyday. The roads we ride or drive on and the buildings we live learn and work in all contain minerals. Below is a selected list of commonly used metallic and nonmetallic minerals, ore minerals, mineral byproducts, aggregates, and rock types that are used to make products we use in our daily life.

Aggregates

Natural aggregates include sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Aggregates are composed of rock fragments that may be used in their natural state or after mechanical processing, such as crushing, washing, or sizing. Recycled aggregates consist mainly of crushed concrete and crushed asphalt pavement.

Aluminum

Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the main source of aluminum. Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning industries (25%), building and electrical (14%) and in other applications (25%).

Antimony

Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element, but is found in a number of different minerals. Antimony is used principally for flame retardants as well as in ammunition and automotive batteries and as a decolorizing agent in glassmaking.

Asbestos

Asbestos is a class of minerals that can be readily separated into thin, strong fibers that are flexible, heat resistant, and chemically inert. Asbestos minerals are used in fireproof fabrics, yarn, cloth, and paper and paint filler. Asbestos is used to make friction products, asbestos cement pipes and sheets, coatings and compounds, packing and gaskets, roofing and flooring products, paints and caulking, and chemical filters. Fibers are dangerous when breathed, so users must protect against fibers becoming airborne.

Basalt

Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in highway construction, and is a major component of asphalt.

Barium

Barium is an element, derived primarily from the mineral barite, and used as a heavy additive in oil-well-drilling mud, paints, rubber, plastic and paper; production of barium chemicals; and glass manufacturing.

Beryllium

Beryllium, an element commonly associated with igneous rocks, has industrial and nuclear defense applications and is used in light, very strong alloys for the aircraft industry. Beryllium salts are used in x-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. The gemstones of beryl, a beryllium mineral, are emerald and aquamarine.

Bismuth

Bismuth is used in a number of very different applications. The majority is consumed in bismuth alloys, and in pharmaceuticals and chemicals. The remainder is used in ceramics, paints, catalysts, and a variety of minor applications. Bismuth metal is relatively inert and non-toxic. It has replaced toxic lead in many applications such as plumbing, bullets, birdshot, metal alloys, and soldering. Bismuth compounds are used in stomach-upset medicines (hence the trademarked name Pepto-Bismol), treatment of stomach ulcers, soothing creams, and cosmetics.

Boron

Boron compounds are used for many different purposes in industry and the home. Boron is used to make glass, ceramics, enamels, fiberglass, make water softeners, soaps and detergents. Other uses are in agricultural chemicals, pest controls, fire retardants, fireworks, medicine, and various minor applications. Boron nitride is one of the hardest known substances and is used for abrasives and cutting tools.

Bromine

Bromine, recovered commercially through the treatment of seawater brines, is used in leaded gasoline, fire extinguishers and retardants, well-completion fluids, and sanitary preparations. Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element.

Cadmium

Cadmium is used in plating and alloying, pigments, plastics, and batteries. Cadmium is obtained from the ore minerals Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S and Greenockite (CdS)

Calcium

The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form, but as calcium carbonate. It used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastics, rubber, for the production of lime, and as crhused stone in construction. Immense quantities of calcium are found in sedimentary rock deposits of gypsum, limestone, and shale. Some common calcium-bearing minerals include apatite (calcium phosphate), calcite (calcium carbonate), dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and gypsum (calcium sulfate). Calcium metal is produced in Canada, China, France, Russia, and the United States. Total world output is thought to be less than 6,000 metric tons per year. United States consumption of calcium metal is small. On a worldwide basis, more than 100 million metric tons per year of apatite and gypsum are mined, and calcite and dolomite are produced in billions of metric tons per year.

Cement

Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is :a mixture of powdered lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added (hydraulic cement) or as a binding material in concrete" (Kesler, 1994). An excellent overview of cement, its chemistry, and properties can be found in MacLaren and White (2003).

Chromium

Chromium is used in the production of stainless and heat-resistant steel, full-alloy steel, super alloys and other alloys. Chromium is obtained from the ore mineral Chromite (Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al,Fe)₂O₄

Clays

There are many different clay minerals that are used for industrial applications. Clays are used in the manufacturing of paper, refractories, rubber, ball clay, dinnerware and pottery, floor and wall tile, sanitary wear, fire clay, firebricks, foundry sands, drilling mud, iron-ore pelletizing, absorbent and filtering materials, construction materials, and cosmetics.

Cobalt

Half of the consumption of cobalt is used in corrosion- and abrasion-resistant alloys with steel, nickel, and other metals for the production of industrial engines. Other uses of cobalt metal include magnets and cutting tools. Cobalt salts are used to produce a blue color in paint pigments, porcelain, glass, and pottery. Cobalt is obtained from the ore minerals Linneaite (Co₃S₄), Cobaltite CoAsS, and (Fe,Ni,Co)_1-xS_x.

Copper

Copper is used in electric cables and wires, switches, plumbing; heating, electrical, and roofing materials; electronic components; industrial machinery and equipment; transportation; consumer and general products; coins; and jewelry.

Diamond

Industrial diamonds are those that can not be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in tools and drilling bits to cut rock and small stone. Small diamonds, also known as dust or grit, are used for cutting and polishing stone and ceramic products.

Diatomite

Diatomite is a rock composed of the skeletons of diatoms, single-celled organisms with skeletons made of silica, which are found in fresh and salt water. Diatomite is primarily used for filtration of drinks, such as juices and wines, but it is also being used as filler in paints and pharmaceuticals and environmental cleanup technologies.

Dolomite

Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a marine environment but also as has a primary magnesium component. Dolomite is used in agriculture, chemical and industrial applications, cement construction, refractories, and environmental industries.

Feldspar

Feldspar is a rock-forming mineral. It is used in glass and ceramic industries; pottery, porcelain and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cement; glues; fertilizer; and tarred roofing materials and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper applications.

Fluorite

Fluorite is used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics, optical, electroplating, and plastics industries. It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes, emery wheels, electric arc welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.

Garnet

Garnet is used in water filtration, electronic components, ceramics, glass, jewelry, and abrasives used in wood furniture and transport manufacturing. "Garnet is a common metamorphic mineral that becomes abundant enough to mine in a few rocks" (Kesler, 1994).

Germanium

"Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting. It is also found in some copper ores" (Kesler, 1994). Applications include use in fiber-optic components, which are replacing copper in long-distance telecommunication lines, as well as in camera lenses and other glasses and infrared lenses.

Gold

Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions and coins, and in ingots. It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte in the electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.

Granite

Granite can be cut into large blocks and used as a building stone. When polished, it is used for monuments, headstones, countertops, statues, and facing on buildings. It is also suitable for railroad ballast and for road aggregate in highway construction.

Graphite

Graphite is the crystal form of carbon. Graphite is used as a dry lubricant and steel hardener and for brake linings and the production of "lead" in pencils. Most graphite production comes from Korea, India, and Mexico.

Gypsum

Processed gypsum is used in industrial or building plaster, prefabricated wallboard, cement manufacture, and for agriculture.

Halite

Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as food seasoning and as a food preservation. It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides, mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography, and scientific equipment for optical parts.

Iodine

Iodine is used as an antibacterial agent in soaps and cleaning products in restrooms, in iodized salt to prevent goiter, and in first aid boxes as an antiseptic.

Iron Ore

Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other metallurgical products, such as magnets, auto parts, and catalysts. Most U.S. production is from Minnesota and Michigan. The Earth's crust contains about 5% iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust.

Lead

Lead is used in batteries, construction, ammunition, television tubes, nuclear shielding, ceramics, weights, and tubes or containers. The United States is largest producer (mainly from Missouri), consumer, and recycler of lead metal.

Limestone

"A sedimentary rock consisting largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which have the same composition CaCO₃". Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of the construction industry. Limestone is used as aggregate, building stone, cement, and lime and in fluxes, glass, refractories, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host of chemical processes.

Lithium

Batteries made from lithium metal or lithium carbonate are used in smoke alarms, pacemakers, defibrillator machines, many other types of portable medical equipment, and in emergency communications equipment, including computers and cell phones.

Magnesium

Magnesium (see dolomite) is used in cement, rubber, paper, insulation, chemicals and fertilizers, animal feed, and pharmaceuticals. Magnesium is obtained from the ore minerals Olivine (Fe,Mg)₂SiO₄, Magnesite MgCO3, and Dolomite CaMg(CO₃)₂.

Manganese

Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. Manganese is obtained from the ore minerals Braunite (Mn,Si)₂O₃, Pyrolusite MnO₂, and Psilomelane BaMn₉O₁₈*₂H₂O.

Mercury

Mercury is extracted from the mineral cinnabar and is used in electrical products, electrolytic production of chlorine and caustic soda, paint, and industrial and control instruments (thermometers and thermostats).

Mica

Mica minerals commonly occur as flakes, scales, or shreds. Sheet muscovite (white) mica is used in electronic insulators, paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in welldrilling mud and lubricants, and in plastics, roofing, rubber, and welding rods.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum is used in stainless steels (21%), tool steels (9%), cast irons (7%), and chemical lubricants (8%), and in other applications (55%). It is commonly used to make automotive parts, construction equipment, gas transmission pipes, and as a pure metal molybdenum is used as filament supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies, and furnace parts because of its high melting temperature (2,623°C).

Nickel

Nickel is vital as an alloy to stainless steel, and it plays a key roll in the chemical and aerospace industries. Leading producers are Canada, Norway, and Russia.

Phosphate rock

Primarily a sedimentary rock used to produce phosphoric acid and ammoniated phosphate fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals for industrial and home consumers. The majority of U.S. production comes from Florida, North Carolina, Idaho, and Utah.

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

PGM's include platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium. These elements commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements. Platinum is used principally in catalytic converters for the control of automobile and industrial plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to produce acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals; and in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridges.

Potash

Potash is an industry term that refers to a group of water-soluble salts containing the element potassium, as well as to ores containing these salts (Kesler, 1994). Potash is used in fertilizer, medicine, the chemical industry, and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze, and nickel.

Pyrite

Pyrite (fools gold) is used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and sulfur dioxide; pellets of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, and nickel.

Quartz

Quartz crystals are popular as a semiprecious gemstone; crystalline varieties include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Because of its piezoelectric properties (the ability to generate electricity under mechanical stress), quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators, and wave stabilizers. Quartz is also used in the manufacture of glass, paints, abrasives, refractories, and precision instruments.

Sandstone

Sandstone is used as a building stone, road bases and coverings, construction fill, concrete, railroad ballast, and snow and ice control.

Silica / Silicon

Silica is used in the manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials, ceramics, abrasives, and water filtration; and is a component of hydraulic cements, a filler in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paper, and insecticides; as an anti-caking agent in foods; a flatting agent in paint, and as a thermal insulator.

Silver

Silver is used in photography, chemistry, electrical and electronic products (because of its very high conductivity), fine silverware, electroplated wire, jewelry, coins, and brazing alloys and solders.

Strontium

Photoluminescent exit signs use a class of newly developed phosphorescent pigments that are based on strontium oxide aluminate chemistry.

Sulfur

Sulfur is of importance to every sector of the world's manufacturing processes, drugs, and fertilizer complexes. Sulfur is used as an industrial raw material through its major derivative, sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid production is the major end use for sulfur. Most sulfur goes into fertilizer; oil refining is another major use as well as a source of sulfur.

Talc

The primary use for talc is in the production of paper. Ground talc is used as filler in ceramics, paint, paper, roofing, plastics, cosmetics, and in agriculture. Talc is found in many common household products, such as baby (talcum) powder, deodorant, and makeup. Very pure talc is used in fine arts and is called soapstone. It is often used to carve figurines.

Tin

Tin is used in the manufacture of cans and containers, electrical equipment, and chemicals.

Titanium

Titanium is a metal used mostly in jet engines, airframes, and space and missile applications. In powdered form, titanium is used as a white pigment for paints, paper, plastics, rubber, and other materials.

Trona

Trona is used in glass container manufacture, fiberglass, specialty glass, flat glass, liquid detergents, medicine, food additives, photography, cleaning and boiler compounds, and control of water pH. Trona is mined mainly in Wyoming.

Tungsten

Tungsten is used in steel production, metalworking, cutting applications, construction electrical machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, light bulbs, carbide drilling equipment, heat and radiation shielding, textile dyes, enamels, paints, and for coloring glass.

Uranium

Uranium is a radioactive material used in nuclear defense systems and for nuclear generation of electricity. It also used in nuclear-medicine x-ray machines, atomic dating, and electronic instruments.

Zeolites

Some of the uses of zeolite minerals include aquaculture (for removing ammonia from the water in fish hatcheries), water softener, catalysts, cat litter, odor control, and removing radioactive ions from nuclear-plant effluent.

Zinc

Zinc is used as protective coating on steel, as die casting, as an alloying metal with copper to make brass, and as chemical compounds in rubber and paint. Additional uses include galvanizing iron, electroplating, metal spraying, automotive parts, electrical fuses, anodes, dry-cell batteries, nutrition, chemicals, roof gutters, cable wrapping, and pennies. Zinc oxide is used in medicine, paints, vulcanizing rubber, and sun-block lotions.

Zirconium

Zirconium is a metal recovered from zircon. "Zircon is used in mineral form in refractory products, where it is valued for its high melting temperature of 2,550°C. Some zircon is processed by chemical leaching to yield elemental zirconium. The best known use for zirconium metal is in nuclear reactors, where zirconium contains the fuel" (Kesler, 1994).

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